Comparative Study of Shatdarshanas:
Evolution of the Indian thought systems
The goal of any of the
thought systems/study/philosophies is to end human suffering by seeking out the
truth or the true knowledge of reality.
Truth is a subjective experience and is inherently multi dimensional with multiple perspectives. However, the study mostly includes the Man/Microcosm and the nature/universe also known as the Macrocosm and the interplay between the two.
The truth is known either by:
Truth is a subjective experience and is inherently multi dimensional with multiple perspectives. However, the study mostly includes the Man/Microcosm and the nature/universe also known as the Macrocosm and the interplay between the two.
The truth is known either by:
Shruthi (Hearing) - Direct experience, or by
Smriti (Memorising) - Indirect experience/ Study of other people’s
experiences
Shruthi / Vedas
Vedas is the oldest body of
knowledge. The word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit root word “Vid” means to
know, perceive, to attain, to comprehend.
It is the expression of the experience of reality. It was heard by the Seers in deep states of clarity. Therefore it is also called Shruthi – that which was heard.
It is considered Apourusheya, meaning divine, and hence not of human origin. Therefore, it is considered the primary authority. It is Esoteric and abstract. It is also difficult to navigate and make sense.
It is the expression of the experience of reality. It was heard by the Seers in deep states of clarity. Therefore it is also called Shruthi – that which was heard.
It is considered Apourusheya, meaning divine, and hence not of human origin. Therefore, it is considered the primary authority. It is Esoteric and abstract. It is also difficult to navigate and make sense.
Veda Vyasa divided the vast
body of knowledge into 4 vedas
1.
Rig Veda – Hymns
of Praise
2.
Yajur Veda –
Ritualistic Hymns
3.
Sama Veda – Songs
of Praise
4.
Atharva Veda –
Book of Formulae
And each of the 4 vedas was
divided into 4 sections based on the content.
1.
Samhita – It
is the early part of the vedas consisting of Hymns, devoted to the forces of
nature – Indira, Varuna, Agni, Surya etc. It was Poetic and magical. It creates
Wonder
2.
Brahmana –
This part contains Liturgies and rituals one must carry out to tame the forces
of nature. The “How to worship”. It deals with the Karma kanda.
3.
Aranyaka –
This part contains the philosophical speculation on the nature of reality.
Also, contains objects of meditation.
4.
Upanishad –
Last part of the vedas containing the crème of philosophical thought. Deals
with Jnanakanda – 10 principal Upanishads.
These 4 parts also reflect
the 4 stages of the human life.
Childhood -
Adulthood –
Retirement -
Old age –
Old age –
Smriti
It means to memorise or which
is remembered.
It contains scriptures of
secondary authority in terms of
Literature, lives, teachings
of Rishis.
Pourushay – meaning having
human origin, written by seers
Digestible and accessible
since it gives context to knowledge
Under Smriti – There are 6 divisions
Under Smriti – There are 6 divisions
1.
Upavedas –
subsidiary vedic texts – applied knowledge –
Ayurveda (Medicine),
Dhanurveda (Archery),
Gandharva veda (Dance and Music),
Stapathyaveda
(Architecture)
2.
Vedangas –
The 6 limbs of the vedas -
The six Vedangas are
Siksha, - Phonetics
Chhandas, - metre
Vyakarana, - grammer
Nirukta, - etymology
Jyotisha - astronomy
Kalpa – ritual
The six Vedangas are
Siksha, - Phonetics
Chhandas, - metre
Vyakarana, - grammer
Nirukta, - etymology
Jyotisha - astronomy
Kalpa – ritual
3.
ShatDarshana –
The 6 schools of philosophy
4.
Purana –
Traditional legends
5.
Ithiasa –
Historical events
6.
Dharma Sastras –
Socio religious works
Darshanas
That which shows you the
truth. It is based on the knowledge of the vedas. It is written mainly in the
form of Sutras (Aphorisms)
Broad principles:
The individual self is a
spiritual being
The root of suffering is
ignorance
The goal of each philosophy
is to end the suffering
Belief in the idea of Karma
The individual self who
follows any of the six systems observes the same Sadhana as the followers of
other systems. Sadhana consists of the basic practices of purification and self
control.
The 6 Darshanas are – Shatdarshanas: (Shat meaning 6)
1.
Nyyaya –
propounded by Sage Goutama and the principles are based on Logic and analysis.
So it is called Realistic School
2.
Vaisheshika
– Sage Kanda – Atomist School. Classify the entities present to human
perceptions
3.
Sankhya –
Sage kapila – Enumerationist school. Exploring the ultimate objects of reality
4.
Yoga – Sage
Patanjali – Practical School
5.
Purva Mimamsa
– Sage Jaimini – Ritualistic school – Fruitful actions, dharma
6.
Vedantha / Uttara Mimamsa – sage Vyasa –
Philosophical school – derived from Upanishads, Baghavad Gita and Bramha Sutras
1.Nyyaya –
propounded by Sage Goutama and the principles are based on Logic and analysis.
So it is called Realistic School
It is a Sanskrit word which
literally means rules, method or judgement. This school's most significant contributions to Indian
philosophy was systematic development of the theory of
logic methodology, and its treatises on epistemology.
The Nyyaya school of philosophy believes that the following pramanas
(proof of knowledge) are a reliable way to gain knowledge. Pratyakṣa (perception),
Anumāṇa (inference),
Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and
Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts)
Anumāṇa (inference),
Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and
Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts)
The Nyaya school
considers perception, inference, comparison/analogy, and testimony from
reliable sources as four means to correct knowledge, holding that perception is
the ultimate source of such knowledge.[
Naiyyayika scholars
approached philosophy as a form of direct realism, stating that anything that really exists
is in principle humanly knowable. To them, correct knowledge and understanding
is different from simple, reflexive cognition; it requires Anuvyavasaya (cross-examination of cognition,
reflective cognition of what one thinks one knows). An influential
collection of texts on logic and reason is the Nyayasutras, attributed to Aksapada Gautama, variously estimated to have been composed between 6th-century
BCE and 2nd-century CE.
2.Vaisheshika
– Sage Kanda – Atomist School. Classify the entities present to human
perceptions
Vaisheshika
school is known for its insights in naturalism. It is a form of atomism in
natural philosophy. It postulated that all objects in the physical
universe are reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), and one's experiences are derived from the
interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial
arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. Everything
was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the
aggregation and nature of these atoms was predetermined by cosmic forces. Ajivika metaphysics included
a theory of atoms which was later adapted in Vaiśeṣika school.
According to
Vaiśeṣika school, knowledge and liberation were achievable by a complete
understanding of the world of experience.
Vaiśeṣika darshana was
founded by Kaṇāda Kashyapa around the 6th to 2nd century BC.
The epistemology of Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism, like Buddhism, accepted only two reliable means to knowledge: perception
and inference.
3.Sankhya –
Sage kapila – Enumerationist school. Exploring the ultimate objects of reality
These
include pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference)
and śabda (āptavacana, word/testimony of
reliable sources). Sometimes described as one of the rationalist schools
of Indian philosophy, this ancient school's reliance on reason
was exclusive but strong.
Samkhya is
strongly dualist. Sāmkhya philosophy regards the universe as
consisting of two realities, puruṣa (consciousness)
and prakṛti (matter). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which
puruṣa is bonded to prakṛti in some form. This fusion, state the Samkhya
scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi ("intellect")
and ahaṅkāra (ego
consciousness). The universe is described by this school as one created by
purusa-prakṛti entities infused with various combinations of variously
enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. During the state
of imbalance, one or more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of
bondage, particularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage is called
liberation, or kaivalya,
by the Samkhya school.
Samkhya, also referred to as Sankhya, Sāṃkhya,
or Sāṅkhya, is a Sanskrit word that, depending on the context, means "to reckon,
count, enumerate, calculate, deliberate, reason, reasoning by numeric
enumeration, relating to number, rational." In the context of
ancient Indian philosophies, Samkhya refers to the
philosophical school in Hinduism based on systematic enumeration and rational
examination.
Samkhya is known for
its theory of guṇas (qualities, innate
tendencies). Guṇa, it states, are of three types:
1.
sattva being goodness, compassion,
illumination, and positivity;
2.
rajas being activity, chaos, passion, and impulsivity,
potentially good or bad; and
3.
tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destruction,
lethargy, negativity.
All matter (prakṛti),
states Samkhya, has these three guṇas, but in different proportions. The
interplay of these guṇas defines the character of someone or something, of
nature and determines the progress of life. The Samkhya theory of
guṇas was widely discussed, developed and refined by various schools of Indian
philosophies. Samkhya's philosophical treatises also influenced the development
of various theories of Hindu ethics.
Evolution
in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The two primary purposes of evolution
of prakṛti are the enjoyment and the liberation of Purusha. The 23
evolutes of prakṛti are categorized as follows:
Primordial matter
|
prakṛti; puruṣa
|
Root evolvent
|
Internal
instruments
|
Intellect (Buddhi or Mahat), Ego-sense (Ahamkāra), Mind
(Manas)
|
Evolvent
|
External
instruments
|
Five Sense organs (Jnānendriyas), Five Organs
of action (Karmendriyas)
|
Evolute
|
Subtle elements
|
Form (Rupa), Sound (Shabda), Smell (Gandha), Taste (Rasa),
Touch (Sparsha).
|
Evolvent
|
Gross
elements
|
Earth (Prithivi), Water (Jala), Fire (Agni), Air (Vāyu),
Ether (Ākāsha).
|
Evolute
|
4.Yoga –
Sage Patanjali – Practical School
Yoga is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which
originated in ancient India.
There is a
broad variety of yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Jainism.
The term "Yoga" in the Western world often denotes a modern form
of hatha yoga and yoga as exercise,
consisting largely of the postures called asanas.
The origins
of yoga have been speculated to date back to pre-vedic Indian
traditions; possibly in the Indus valley
civilization around
3000 BCE. It is mentioned in the Rigveda,
but yoga most likely developed as a systematic study around the 5th and 6th
centuries BCE, in ancient India's ascetic and śramaṇa movements.
The chronology of earliest texts describing yoga-practices is unclear,
varyingly credited to Upanishads.
The Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali date
from the 2nd century BCE, and gained prominence in the west in 20th century
after being first introduced by Swami Vivekananda.
Hatha yoga texts emerged sometimes between the 9th and 11th century with
origins in tantra.
The word
Yoga in Sanskrit is derived from the root Yuj which means to attach, join,
harness.
The ultimate
goal of Yoga is Moksha (liberation),
although the exact form this takes depends on the philosophical or theological
system with which it is conjugated.
In the
classical Astanga yoga system, the ultimate goal of yoga practice is to achieve
the state of Samadhi and
abide in that state as pure awareness.
References
to Yoga is made in all religions including Islam and Christianity, Alexanders
chronicles, Tibetian and Zen Budhism, Jainism, western world etc. and also in
Mahabaratha and Bagvad Gita
5. Purva Mimamsa – Sage Jaimini – Ritualistic school – Fruitful actions, dharma
Mīmāmsa is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or
"critical investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of
contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic text. This tradition is
also known as Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā because of its focus on the
earlier (pūrva) Vedic texts dealing with ritual actions, and similarly
as Karma-Mīmāṃsā due to its focus on ritual action (karma). It is one of six Vedic "affirming" (āstika) schools of Hinduism. This particular school is known for its philosophical
theories on the nature of dharma,
based on hermeneutics of the Vedas, especially the Brāḥmanas and Saṃhitas. The Mīmāṃsā school was foundational and
influential for the vedāntic schools, which were also known
as Uttara-Mīmāṃsā for their focus on the "later" (uttara)
portions of the Vedas, the Upaniṣads. While both "earlier" and "later"
Mīmāṃsā investigate the aim of human action, they do so with different
attitudes towards the necessity of ritual praxis.
6. Vedantha/ Uttara Mimamsa – sage Vyasa – Philosophical school – derived from
Upanishads.
The word Vedanta literally means the end
of the Vedas and
originally referred to the Upanishads.[1] Vedanta
was concerned with the jñānakāṇḍa or Vedic
knowledge part called the Upanishads. The
denotation of Vedanta subsequently widened to include the various philosophical
traditions based on to the Prasthanatrayi.
The Upanishads may be
regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:
1. These were the last literary products of the Vedic period.
2. These mark the culmination of Vedic thought.
3. These were taught and debated last, in the Brahmacharya (student) stage.
Vedanta is one of
the six orthodox
(āstika) schools of Indian philosophy. It is
also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā, the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher
enquiry'; and is often contrasted with Pūrva Mīmāṃsā, the 'former
enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā deals with
the karmakāṇḍa or rituals part (the Samhita and Brahmanas) in the Vedas.
The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and
the Brahma
Sutras constitute
the basis of Vedanta. All schools of Vedanta propound their philosophy by
interpreting these texts, collectively called the Prasthanatrayi,
literally, three sources.
1. The Upanishads, or Śruti prasthāna; considered the Sruti, the “heard” (and repeated) foundation of Vedanta.
2. The Brahma
Sutras, or Nyaya
prasthana / Yukti prasthana; considered the reason-based
foundation of Vedanta.
3. The Bhagavad
Gita, or Smriti prasthāna;
considered the Smriti (remembered
tradition) foundation of Vedanta.
The Brahma Sutras attempted to synthesize
the teachings of the Upanishads. The diversity in the teaching of
the Upanishads necessitated the systematization of these
teachings. This was likely done in many ways in ancient India, but the only
surviving version of this synthesis is the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana.
All major Vedantic teachers, including Shankara, Bhaskara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Vallabha, Madhva, and Swami Bhadreshdas have
composed commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma
Sutras, but also on the Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad
Gita, due to its syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic thought,
has played a major role in Vedantic thought.
The Bhagavad
Gita ("The Song of God"),
often referred to as the Gita, is a 700-verse Sanskrit scripture
that is part of the Hindu epic Mahabharata (chapters
23–40 of Bhishma Parva).
The Gita is
set in a narrative framework of a dialogue between Pandava prince Arjuna and
his guide and charioteer Krishna.
At the start of the Dharma Yudhha (righteous war) between Pandavas and Kauravas,
The Bhagavad
Gita presents a synthesis of Hindu ideas about dharma,
theistic bhakti, and
the yogic ideals of moksha. The
text covers jnana, bhakti, karma,
and Raja Yoga
incorporating ideas from the Samkhya-Yoga philosophy.
The Bhagavad
Gita is the best known and most famous of Hindu texts, with a
unique pan-Hindu influence. The Gita's
call for selfless action inspired many leaders of the Indian independence
movement including Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi;
the latter referred to it as his "spiritual dictionary".
